Identification of dietary patterns associated with elevated blood pressure among Lebanese men: A comparison of principal component analysis with reduced rank regression and partial least square methods.

BACKGROUND: To examine the associations of dietary patterns with odds of elevated Blood Pressure (BP) among Lebanese adult males using principal component analysis (PCA), and compare the results to two other data reduction methods, including reduced rank regression (RRR) and partial least-squares (PLS) regression. METHODS: Data from the National Nutrition and Non-Communicable Disease Risk Factor Survey conducted in Lebanon between years 2008 and 2009 were used. Dietary intake data were collected by a 61-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). In addition, anthropometric and blood pressure measurements were obtained following standard techniques. For the purpose of this study, data of males older than 20 years with no history of chronic diseases were selected (n = 673). Elevated BP was indicated if the systolic blood pressure was > = 130mm Hg and/or the diastolic blood pressure > = 85 mm Hg. Dietary patterns were constructed using PCA, PLS and RRR and compared based on the performance to identify plausible patterns associated with elevated BP. For PLS and RR, the response variables were BMI, waist circumference and percent body fat. Multiple logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations between the dietary pattern scores of each method and risk of elevated BP. RESULTS: Three dietary patterns were identified using PCA: Western, Traditional Lebanese, and Fish and alcohol. Both the Western and the Traditional Lebanese patterns were associated with higher odds of elevated BP in the study population (OR = 1.23, CI 1.03, 1.46; OR = 1.29, CI 1.09, 1.52 respectively). The comparison among the three methods for dietary patterns derivation showed that PLS and RRR derived patterns explained greater variance in the outcome (PCA: 1.2%; PLS: 14.1%; RRR: 15.36%) and were significantly associated with elevated BP, while the PCA dietary patterns were descriptive of the study population's real dietary habits (PCA: 23.6%; PLS: 19.8%; RRR: 11.3%). CONCLUSIONS: The Western and Traditional Lebanese dietary patterns were associated with higher odds of elevated BP among Lebanese males. The findings of this study showed that, compared to PCA, the use of RRR method resulted in more significant associations with the outcome while the PCA-derived patterns were more related to the real habits in the study population.

Fish consumption frequency and lipid peroxidation in the riverside population of Lower Tocantins, Pará / Frecuencia de consumo de pescado y peroxidación lipídica en la población ribereña del Bajo Tocantins, Pará

Introduction: Several studies report the benefits of fish consumption to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis and arrhythmia. On the other hand, regular consumption of fish can induce the accumulation of methylmercury in the body. Objective: To evaluate the relationship between frequency of fish consumption, mercury concentrations and intensity of lipid peroxidation. Methods: A cross - sectional, observational study. It was evaluated riverside in Limoeiro do Ajuru, Pará. Variables were sociodemographic variables, frequency of weekly fish consumption, concentration of total mercury in hair and the dose of malondialdehyde in plasma. The concentrations of total mercury (μg/g) and malondialdehyde (nmol / ml) were respectively 0.63 μg/g and 0.54 nmol/ml for weekly fish consumption less than two meals, 0.51 μg/g 0.42 nmol/ml for consumption in two to four meals and 0.88 μg/g and 0.31 nmol/ml for consumption major than four fish meals. There was a significant difference between groups of two to four and major than four meals, only for the total mercury variable (p = 0.008). Discussion: In this study, low levels exposure and high fish consumption can influencing the bioaccumulation of mercury in this population. Santos et al, found the total mercury concentration (0.09 to 3.79 μg/g) in the rivers and compared the levels according to the intake categories of fish, did not obtain significant statistical difference. This divergent result suggests that deforestation in the Amazon has been increased and is an important vehicle for mercury exposure which affects local survival and subsistence. Conclusion: Riparians in the studied region have high fish consumption and low concentrations of mercury. Although the group with low fish consumption had higher levels of MDA there was no significant difference when compared with other groups

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Estado poblacional del pepino de mar (Clase Holothuroidea) en el Caribe de Guatemala / Population status of Sea Cucumber (Class Holothuroidea) in the Caribbean of Guatemala

Los holoturoideos o pepinos de mar pertenecen al filo Echinodermata, e incluyen animales con cuerpo vermiforme alargado y blando que viven en los fondos de los mares de todo el mundo. Ecológicamente estos organismos son recicladores eficientes de sedimentos en el ambiente. En los últimos años han cobrado alto valor comercial en el mercado asiático, por lo que su pesquería se ha expandido hacia muchos países. En Guatemala se decretó una veda precautoria en el 2010 por cinco años, al terminar esta se extendió por dos años más, pero con el compromise de obtener información científica durante dicho período. Con este fin, se realizó una evaluación poblacional del pepino de mar a través de transectos lineales de 60 m2, en siete puntos de la bahía de Amatique y la zona expuesta del mar Caribe de Guatemala, durante abril, junio y septiembre del 2016. Se evaluaron 6,300 m2, encontrando un total de 64 individuos de pepinos de mar. La riqueza de holotúridos está representada por siete especies, siendo las más abundantes Isostichopus badionotus (Selenka, 1867) y Holothuria mexicana (Ludwig, 1875). Los sitios con mayor abundancia fueron Faro Rojo y King Fish (p = .004). En base a los resultados de esta evaluación se puede determinar que la explotación comercial de los pepinos de mar en el Caribe guatemalteco no es viable, y que para aprovechar el valor comercial de estas especies se podría impulsar la acuicultura y comercializarlo a través de un sistema eficiente de trazabilidad.

Holothurians or sea cucumbers belong to the filum Equinodermata, which includes animals with long soft vermiform bodies that live on the ocean bottom of the entire world. Ecologically these organisms are efficient recyclers of sediments in the environment. In recent years, they have gained high commercial value in the Asian market, so their fishery has expanded to many countries. In Guatemala, a precautionary ban was decreed in 2010 for five years, when it ended it was extended for two more years, but with the commitment to obtain scientific information during that period. For this purpose, a population assessment of sea cucumber was carried out through linear transects of 60 m2, in seven points of Amatique Bay and the exposed zone of the Caribbean Sea of Guatemala, during April, June and September of 2016. 6300 m2 were evaluated, founding 64 organisms. The holothurians richness is represented by seven species, being the most abundant Isostichopus badionotus (Selenka, 1867) and Holothuria mexicana (Ludwig, 1875). The most abundant sites were Faro Rojo and King Fish (p = .004). Based on the results of this evaluation, it can be determined that the commercial exploitation of sea cucumbers in the guatemalan Caribbean is not viable, and that to take advantage of the commercial value of these species, aquaculture could be promoted and marketed through an efficient traceability system.

Fish Consumption and Premenstrual Syndrome and Dysphoric Disorder in Japanese Collegiate Athletes.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific characteristics of premenstrual syndrome (PMS)/premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) in Japanese collegiate athletes, with a focus on their fish consumption. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: A university in Osaka, the largest city in western Japan. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: The participants were 312 female collegiate students. The study group was composed of 200 students who were members of sport clubs, and the control (nonathletes) group was composed of 112 members of cultural clubs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Premenstrual symptoms and social activities. RESULTS: The prevalence of moderate to severe PMS and PMDD in the study group was the same as in nonathletes. The prominent feature of premenstrual symptoms in athletes was that the severities of 'physical symptoms' and 'performance in training or competition' were much greater than those of nonathletes (P = .003 and P = .002, Mann-Whitney U test). There was a greater effect of PMS and PMDD on athletes, affecting their physical symptoms and performance compared with nonathletes. In terms of dietary habits, 'fish or dried fish' consumption was associated with a decreased risk of poor performance in athletes (odds ratio, 0.61; 95% confidence interval, 0.40-0.92). CONCLUSION: The results from this study indicate that fish consumption might be positively associated with the relief of PMS/PMDD-induced athletic disturbance.

Meat consumption in São Paulo-Brazil: trend in the last decade.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize trends in meat consumption, and verify the percentage of excessive red and processed meat consumption in the last decade in São Paulo, Brazil. DESIGN: Cross-sectional weighted data from the Health Survey for São Paulo, conducted in São Paulo, Brazil among people aged 12 years and older. SETTING: Diet was assessed by two 24-hour recalls in each survey. Usual meat consumption was estimated by Multiple Source Method. Wald tests were used to compare means across survey years. Data were collected from adolescents, adults, and elderly using a representative, complex, multistage probability-based survey in 2003 and in 2008 in São Paulo, southeast of Brazil. SUBJECTS: 2631 Brazilians were studied in 2003 and 1662 in 2008. RESULTS: Daily mean of red and processed meat consumption was 100 g/day in 2003, and 113 g/day in 2008. Excessive red and processed meat consumption was observed in almost 75% of the subjects, especially among adolescents in both surveys. Beef represented the largest proportion of meat consumed, followed by poultry, pork and fish in both surveys. CONCLUSIONS: Daily red and processed meat consumption was higher in 2008 than in 2003, and almost the entire population consumed more than what is recommended by World Cancer Research Fund. Public health strategies are needed, in order to reduce red and processed meat consumption to the recommended amounts, for a healthy diet.

Untargeted metabolomics as a screening tool for estimating compliance to a dietary pattern.

There is a growing interest in studying the nutritional effects of complex diets. For such studies, measurement of dietary compliance is a challenge because the currently available compliance markers cover only limited aspects of a diet. In the present study, an untargeted metabolomics approach was used to develop a compliance measure in urine to distinguish between two dietary patterns. A parallel intervention study was carried out in which 181 participants were randomized to follow either a New Nordic Diet (NND) or an Average Danish Diet (ADD) for 6 months. Dietary intakes were closely monitored over the whole study period, and 24 h urine samples as well as weighed dietary records were collected several times during the study. The urine samples were analyzed by UPLC-qTOF-MS, and a partial least-squares discriminant analysis with feature selection was applied to develop a compliance model based on data from 214 urine samples. The optimized model included 52 metabolites and had a misclassification rate of 19% in a validation set containing 139 samples. The metabolites identified in the model were markers of individual foods such as citrus, cocoa-containing products, and fish as well as more general dietary traits such as high fruit and vegetable intake or high intake of heat-treated foods. It was easier to classify the ADD diet than the NND diet probably due to seasonal variation in the food composition of NND and indications of lower compliance among the NND subjects. In conclusion, untargeted metabolomics is a promising approach to develop compliance measures that cover the most important discriminant metabolites of complex diets.

[Connection between the knowledge of the recommendations of the National Nutrition and Health Program and patterns of eating behaviour and physical activity]. / Associations entre la connaissance des recommandations du Programme National Nutrition Santé et les comportements en matière d'alimentation et d'activité physique.

BACKGROUND: Nutrition education is one of the main lines of the French nutrition policy that has been undertaken for several years. The underlying hypothesis of this approach is that knowledge improvement is one of the ways likely to contribute to health-enhancing diet and physical activity. The objective of this paper, based on the 2008 Health and nutrition Barometer, is to examine the associations observed between knowledge and behavior with regard to diet and physical activity. METHODS: The 2008 Health and nutrition Barometer is a nationally representative telephone survey conducted on 4714 individuals aged 12-75 years. For six recommendations of the National Nutrition and Health Program (Programme national nutrition santé [PNNS]), multiple logistic models were used to identify associations between knowledge of these recommendations and behavior, among adults aged 18-75 years. For food consumed on the day before the interview, odds ratios were adjusted for sex, age, education level, agglomeration size and region. As bivariate analysis showed that income level was significant for recommended consumption of fish, this variable was introduced among adjustment variables. Similarly, the variable occupation was introduced for physical activity. RESULTS: A positive association between knowledge of recommendations and nutritional behavior on the day before interview was observed for fruit and vegetables (OR=1.7), dairy products (OR=1.6), and starchy food (OR=1.6). The same was observed for consumption of fish during the 15 days before the interview (OR=5.0) and for physical activity during a usual week (OR=1.5) but not for the "meat, seafood and eggs" food group. CONCLUSION: Eating habits and physical activity are positively associated with knowledge of nutritional recommendations, mainly acquired via nutritional information and educational actions. Nevertheless, the important differences observed for certain dietary groups between knowledge of recommendations and dietary intake emphasizes the need to further support individual-focused initiatives with health-enhancing environmental strategies.

Assessment of nutritional habits on a group of pupils from a countryside elementary school in Romania.

UNLABELLED: Food is a major contributor to healthy children and youth. The study of this factor must be complex, considering the dietary habits of the population. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 65 pupils from rural area were surveyed weekly about eating chicken, fish, fruits, bread and cereal by-products. A special attention was given to daily consumption of fruits (to those who recognize this contribution). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: chicken appears in menus mostly 2-3 times a week (40.0%) or 4-7 times (27.7%). Fish is particularly present in menus one time (47.6%) or 2-3 times (26.2%). Fruits are provided in 75.4% cases 4-7 times a week. The dominant consumption of bread is of 4-7 times (90.8%) and of cereal by-products is of 2-3 times (58.5%) or even of 4-7 times (27.7%) a week. Self body weight is considered to be appropriate by 63.1% teenagers and in 23.1% cases they considered their body weight is too high. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of national dietary programs can change the nutritional habits of children if they are based on a real assessment, achieved only with the help of surveys conducted by questionnaire method.

[Some correlations between nourishment and physical growth. Observation on a group of teenagers from the Campulung Moldovenesc region, Romania]. / Unele corelatii între dezvoltarea fizica si alimentatie. Observatii pe un lot de adolescenti din municipiul Câmpulung Moldovenesc.

UNLABELLED: The raise and growth of children and youth are processes influenced by the action of internal (inheritance) and external factors (environmental). Among the external factors, nourishment plays an essential role. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The study was made on 369 high school students. There has been made an appreciation of height and weight of these students. There has also been made a nutritional survey on groups of food. RESULTS: Height is prevalent high (40.4%) and very high (29.8%) Weight is especially at average (53.8%) and high values (23.1%). The nutritional survey on groups of food shows a raising input of milk, meat (over 100%) at males and females of 11-14 years old, and also of eggs. On the other hand, fish scores a constant shortcoming (-50%). Corny and dried vegetables products are in high quantities whereas the input of fruit is insufficient (over -20%). CONCLUSION: These studies let us know the peculiarities of youth's nourishment, which allow a correct orientation of prevention programs.

Fishing for feed or fishing for food: increasing global competition for small pelagic forage fish.

At present, small pelagic forage fish species (includes anchovies, herring, mackerel, sardines, etc.) represent the largest landed species group in capture fisheries (27.3 million t or 29.7% of total capture fisheries landings in 2006). They also currently constitute the major species group actively fished and targeted for nonfood uses, including reduction into fishmeal and fish oil for use within compound animal feeds, or for direct animal feeding; the aquaculture sector alone consumed the equivalent of about 23.8 million t of fish (live weight equivalent) or 87% in the form of feed inputs in 2006. This article attempts to make a global analysis of the competition for small pelagic forage fish for direct human consumption and nonfood uses, particularly concerning the important and growing role played by small pelagic forage fish in the diet and food security of the poor and needy, especially within the developing countries of Africa and the Sub-Saharan region.

Assessing consumer awareness about mercury in fish.

The study discussed in this article was conducted to determine if a retail-based educational campaign would be an effective tool to inform consumers about mercury in fish. In 2005, the Rhode Island (RI) Department of Health, in conjunction with the RI Food Dealers Association, conducted surveys in eight supermarkets to assess consumers' knowledge and awareness of mercury in fish. A presurvey was administered to 523 respondents as they prepared to exit the store June 17-19. During the week of July 11-17, a "Fish Week" educational program was conducted. An identical postsurvey to evaluate the effectiveness of "Fish Week" was administered to 556 customers exiting participating supermarkets on July 21-24. A significant (p < .05) increase occurred in the number of respondents who identified brochures as an information source about mercury in fish. Small, but significant, decreases in awareness and knowledge about mercury in fish issues, however, were unexpected findings that were likely due to factors discussed.

[Food intake and colorectal cancers; an ecological study in Romania]. / Consumul de alimente in relatie cu cancerul colo-rectal. Studiu ecologic in România.

UNLABELLED: The aim of the present study performed in a Romanian population was to identify the food which can be either associated with or protect against colorectal carcinoma. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Correlation and regression analysis were used to examine the association between dietary intake and the rate of incidence for colon, rectum and anus cancers, in study groups from 7 regions of Romania. RESULTS: A strong and positive association was observed for colonic cancer and the intake of coffee, tea and cocoa (r = 0.77, p = 0.042) whereas statistical significance of borderline value was found for margarine (r = 0.73, p = 0.06) and sweets (r = 0.74, p = 0.066) intake. A potential protective effect can be attributed to wine consumption ( r = -0.75, p = 0.03). The malignancies of the rectum and anus showed both a strong positive correlation with the intake of red meat ( r = 0.76, p = 0.048), sausages ( r = 0.87, p = 0.012), margarine (r = 0.97, p = 0.0004), butter ( r = 0.76, p = 0.049), sweets ( r = 0.93, p = 0.003), beverages (r = 0.97, p = 0.0003), coffee, tea, cocoa ( r = 0.94, p = 0.002). Negative correlations were reported for the recto-anal cancer and the consumption of: fish (r = -0.8, p = 0.032), cheese (r = -0.9, p = 0.006), wine (r = -0.85, p = 0.015). CONCLUSION: The need for reducing the dietary intake of margarine, red meat, sausages and sweets while the beneficial effects of wine consumption have been also confirmed.

Perceived importance of sustainability and ethics related to fish: a consumer behavior perspective.

Although sustainability and ethics are of increasing public importance, little research has been conducted to reveal its association with fish consumer behavior. Cross-sectional data were collected through a postal self-administered survey (June 2005) from a sample of 381 Flemish women aged 20-50 years. Consumers attach high perceived importance to sustainability and ethics related to fish. However, this perceived importance is neither correlated with fish consumption frequency nor with general attitude toward eating fish. Refusing to eat wild fish is grounded in sustainability and ethical concerns, whereas the decision not to eat farmed fish is associated with a lower expected intrinsic quality rather than shaped by importance attached to sustainability and ethical issues.

Long term nutritional intake and the risk for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a population based study.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Weight loss is considered therapeutic for patients with NAFLD. However, there is no epidemiological evidence that dietary habits are associated with NAFLD. Dietary patterns associated with primary NAFLD were investigated. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of a sub-sample (n=375) of the Israeli National Health and Nutrition Survey. Exclusion criteria were any known etiology for secondary NAFLD. Participants underwent an abdominal ultrasound, biochemical tests, dietary and anthropometric evaluations. A semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire was administered. RESULTS: After exclusion, 349 volunteers (52.7% male, mean age 50.7+/-10.4, 30.9% primary NAFLD) were included. The NAFLD group consumed almost twice the amount of soft drinks (P=0.03) and 27% more meat (P<0.001). In contrast, the NAFLD group consumed somewhat less fish rich in omega-3 (P=0.056). Adjusting for age, gender, BMI and total calories, intake of soft drinks and meat was significantly associated with an increased risk for NAFLD (OR=1.45, 1.13-1.85 95% CI and OR=1.37, 1.04-1.83 95% CI, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: NAFLD patients have a higher intake of soft drinks and meat and a tendency towards a lower intake of fish rich in omega-3. Moreover, a higher intake of soft drinks and meat is associated with an increased risk of NAFLD, independently of age, gender, BMI and total calories.

Food, nutrient and heterocyclic amine intake and the risk of bladder cancer.

Fruit and vegetable intake has been linked to bladder cancer risk; however, evidence for other foods or specific dietary factors is inconclusive. The association between diet and bladder cancer risk was evaluated among 912 incident bladder cancer cases and 873 controls in Spain. Data were consistent with a reduced bladder cancer risk associated with high fruit intake; however, the association was significant only among current smokers (OR (95% CI) for 5th versus 1st quintile: 0.5 (0.3-0.9), p trend=0.009). Evaluation of food subgroups showed significant inverse associations with high intakes of berries, Liliaceae vegetables and yellow-orange vegetables. The latter association was stronger among individuals with the GSTM1 present than the null genotype (0.4 (0.2, 0.7) and 0.9 (0.6, 1.3), respectively; p for interaction=0.04). Meat or fish intake, their cooking methods or level of doneness, or heterocyclic amine intakes were not significantly associated with risk. Intake of folate, other B-vitamins (B12, B6, B2) and retinol was also associated with a reduced risk, the strongest associations being for vitamin B6 (0.6 (0.4, 0.8) p trend=0.0006) and retinol (0.6 (0.4-0.9) p trend=0.004). Our findings indicate that fruit and vegetable intake, as well as B-vitamin and retinol intake might be associated with a reduced bladder cancer risk.

Depressed mood and dietary fish intake: direct relationship or indirect relationship as a result of diet and lifestyle?

Previous studies have suggested an association between depressed mood and the dietary intake of fish. In all cases, however, dietary fish intake has been considered at the exclusion of all other aspects of the diet. This analysis investigates associations between depressed mood and dietary fish intake, while also concurrently investigating intake of a number of other dietary components. The analysis is conducted on data from 10,602 men from Northern Ireland and France screened for inclusion into the PRIME cohort study. Depressed mood was assessed using a self-report questionnaire based on the Welsh Pure Depression sub-scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, diet was assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire, and limited demographics were also measured. Using regression, depressed mood is initially inversely associated with dietary fish intake. On inclusion of all other dietary variables, the strength of this relationship reduces but remains, and significant associations with a number of other foods are also found. On additional inclusion of all demographic variables, the strength of the above relationships again reduces, and associations with various measures of socio-economic status and education are also significant. These findings suggest that depressed mood is associated with fish intake both directly, and indirectly as part of a diet that is associated with depression and as part of a lifestyle that is associated with depression. Additional support for these conclusions is also provided in the pattern of associations between depressed mood and diet in the two countries. The relative contributions of fish intake to depressed mood both directly and indirectly are yet to be determined. However, while diet is not measured and until lifestyle can be adequately measured, the potential roles of diet and lifestyle in the association between depressed mood and dietary fish intake should not be ignored.

Depressed mood and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake from fish: non-linear or confounded association?

There is increasing evidence of an association between low dietary intake of essential n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 EFAs) and depressed mood. This study aimed to evaluate this association in a large population-based sample of UK individuals. N-3 EFA intake (intake from fish alone, and from all sources (fish and supplements)), depressed mood (assessed using the short-form Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales) and demographic variables (sex, age, Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) based on postal code, and date of questionnaire completion) were obtained simultaneously by self-report questionnaire (N = 2982). Using polynomial regression, a non-linear relationship between depressed mood and n-3 EFA intake from fish was found, with the incremental decrease in depressed mood diminishing as n-3 EFA intake increased. However, this relationship was attenuated by adjustment for age and IMD. No relationship between depression and n-3 EFA intake from all sources was found. These findings suggest that higher levels of n-3 EFA intake from fish are associated with lower levels of depressed mood, but the association disappears after adjustment for age and social deprivation, and after inclusion of n-3 EFA intake from supplements. This study does have a number of limitations, but the findings available suggest that the apparent associations between depressed mood and n-3 EFA intake from fish may simply reflect a wider association between depressed mood and lifestyle.

Relationship between dietary intake of cod liver oil in early pregnancy and birthweight.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the possible association between birth outcome and marine food and cod liver oil intake of healthy women in early (prior to 15 weeks of gestation) pregnancy. DESIGN: An observational study. SETTING: Free-living conditions in a community with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. POPULATION: Four hundred and thirty-five healthy pregnant Icelandic women without antenatal and intrapartum complications. METHODS: Dietary intake of the women was estimated with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) covering food intake together with lifestyle factors for the previous three months. Questionnaires were filled out at between 11 and 15 weeks and between 34 and 37 weeks of gestation. The estimated intake of marine food and cod liver oil was compared with birthweight by linear and logistic regression controlling for potential confounding. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Birthweight, cod liver oil intake, lifestyle factors (alcohol, smoking). RESULTS: Fourteen percent of the study population used liquid cod liver oil in early pregnancy. Regression analysis shows that these women gave birth to heavier babies (P < 0.001), even after adjusting for the length of gestation and other confounding. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal intake of liquid cod liver oil early in pregnancy was associated with a higher birthweight. Higher birthweight has been associated with a lower risk of diseases later in life and maternal cod liver oil intake might be one of the means for achieving higher birthweight.